Aug 31, · The University of Utah on Instagram: “Since Arts Bash can May 03, · The son of a half-Jewish Parisian grand-bourgeois family, Proust was known, before the publication of “Swann’s Way,” as a malicious, amusing, slightly absurd society boy, with a vaguely Oct 03, · Before we start talking about how to write an anecdote, you may be wondering, \'What is an anecdote?\' Basically, it\'s a short story about something that happened to you, someone you know, or know of. If you and your friends are chatting about a person, and you remember something they did, then tell the story as part of the conversation, you have used an anecdote
What We Find When We Get Lost in Proust | The New Yorker
What constitutes a definition of fascism and fascist governments has been a complicated and highly disputed subject concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets debated amongst historians, political scientists, and other scholars since Benito Mussolini first used the term in Historian Ian Kershaw once wrote that "trying to define 'fascism' is like trying to nail jelly to the wall".
A significant number of scholars agree that a "fascist regime" is foremost an authoritarian form of governmentan amusing incident essay, although not all authoritarian regimes are fascist. Authoritarianism is thus a defining characteristic, but most scholars will say that more distinguishing traits are needed to make an an amusing incident essay regime fascist.
Similarly, fascism as an ideology is also hard to define. Originally, it referred to a totalitarian political movement linked with corporatism which existed in Italy from to under the leadership of Benito Mussolini.
Many scholars use the word "fascism" without capitalization in a more general sense, an amusing incident essay, to refer to an ideology or group of ideologies which was influential in many countries at many different times. For this purpose, they have sought to identify what Roger Griffin calls a "fascist minimum"—that is, the minimum conditions that a certain political movement must meet in order to be considered "fascist", an amusing incident essay.
Scholars have studied the apocalyptic and millenarian aspects of fascism. Benito Mussolinian amusing incident essay, who was the first to use the term for an amusing incident essay political party indescribed fascism in The Doctrine of Fascism as follows: [18]. Granted that the 19th century was the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy, this does not mean that the 20th century must also be the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy.
Political doctrines pass; nations remain. We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right', a Fascist century. If the 19th century were the century of the individual liberalism implies individualism we are free to believe that this is the 'collective' century, an amusing incident essay, and therefore the century of the State.
The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State — a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values — interprets, an amusing incident essay, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people.
Fascism is a religious conception in which man is seen in his immanent relationship with a superior law and with an objective Will that transcends the particular individual and raises him to conscious membership of a spiritual society.
Whoever has seen in the religious politics of the Fascist regime nothing but mere opportunism has not understood that Fascism besides being a system of government is also, an amusing incident essay, and above all, a system of thought.
Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State. Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato [19]. In an interview with Henri Massis inan amusing incident essay, Spanish Nationalist leader Francisco Franco described his movement in Spain as part of a wider trend and said about this trend: [20]. Fascism, since that is the word that is used, fascism presents, wherever it manifests itself, an amusing incident essay, characteristics which are varied to the extent that countries and national temperaments vary.
It is essentially a defensive reaction of the organism, a manifestation of the desire to live, of the desire not to die, which at certain times seizes a whole people. So each people reacts in its own way, according to its conception of life.
Our rising, here, has a Spanish meaning! What can it have in common with Hitlerism, which was, above all, a reaction against the state of things created by the defeat, and by the abdication and the despair that followed it? In his essay "Ur-Fascism", cultural theorist Umberto Eco lists fourteen general properties of fascist ideology, an amusing incident essay. He uses the term "Ur-fascism" as a generic description of different historical forms of fascism, an amusing incident essay.
The fourteen properties are as follows:. Italian historian of fascism Emilio Gentile described fascism in as the "sacralization of politics" through totalitarian an amusing incident essay [22] and argued the following ten an amusing incident essay elements: [23].
James Gregora professor of political science emeritus at the University of California, an amusing incident essay, Berkeley and co-founder of the International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics a prominent group in the promotion of eugenics and segregationcontended that fascism was a "variant of Sorelian syndicalism" which also included components of neo-idealism and elitist socialism.
Fascism was a variant of classical Marxism, a belief system that pressed some themes argued by both Marx and Engels until they found expression in the form of 'national syndicalism' that was to animate the first Fascism. Furthermore, he believed that post-Maoist China displays many fascist traits. He has denied that fascism is "right-wing extremism.
Gregor's work has come under increasing criticism in the 21st century. In a review of his essay on Neofascist movements, Peter H. Merkl, of the University of California, Santa Barbaraaccuses Gregor of ignoring modern work in favor of his own views, and attempting to force an out of date definition of fascism. Merkl writes:. In comparing the movements of with those of the last 30 years, for example, he [Gregor] ignores the differences between the issues created by the World War I peace settlement and the struggle against non-white immigration.
Historian and political scientist Roger Griffin 's definition of fascism focuses on the populist fascist rhetoric that argues for a "re-birth" of a conflated nation and ethnic people.
The core myth that inspires this project is an amusing incident essay only a populist, trans-class movement of purifying, cathartic national rebirth palingenesis can stem the tide of decadence [4]. Griffin writes that a broad scholarly consensus developed in English-speaking social sciences during the s, around the following definition of fascism:.
As such it is an ideology deeply bound up with modernization and modernity, one which has assumed a considerable variety of external forms to adapt itself to the an amusing incident essay historical and national context in which it appears, and has drawn a wide range of cultural and intellectual currents, an amusing incident essay, both left and right, anti-modern and pro-modern, to articulate itself as a body of ideas, slogans, and doctrine.
In the inter-war period it manifested itself primarily in the form of an elite-led "armed party" which attempted, mostly unsuccessfully, to generate a populist mass movement through a liturgical style of politics and a programme of radical policies which promised to overcome a threat posed by international socialism, to end the degeneration affecting the nation under liberalism, and to bring about a radical renewal of its social, political and cultural life as part of what was widely imagined to be the new era being inaugurated in Western civilization.
The core mobilizing myth of fascism which conditions its ideology, an amusing incident essay, propaganda, style of politics and actions is the vision of the nation's imminent rebirth from decadence. Griffin argues that the above definition can be condensed into one sentence: "Fascism is a political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultra- nationalism.
In his history of Europe in the first half of the 20th century, To Hell and BackBritish historian Ian Kershawwhile noting the an amusing incident essay in defining fascism, found these common factors in the extreme Right-wing movements of the late s and early s, whether they called themselves "fascist" or not: [33].
Other features Kershaw found an amusing incident essay be important, and sometimes central to specific movements, but not present in all:.
Kershaw writes about the essential appeal of fascism and the reasons for its success, where it was successful primarily in Italy and Germany :. Fascism's message of national renewal, powerfully linking fear and hope, was diverse enough to be capable of crossing social boundaries.
Its message enveloped an appeal to the material vested interests of quite disparate social groups in a miasma of emotive rhetoric about the future of the nation, an amusing incident essay.
It touched the interests of those who felt threatened by the forces of modernizing social change. It mobilized those who believed they had something to lose — an amusing incident essay, property, power, an amusing incident essay, cultural tradition — through the presumed menace of internal enemies, and especially through the advance of socialism and its revolutionary promise of social revolution.
However, it bound up those interests in a vision of a new society that would reward the strong, the fit, the meritorious — the deserving in their own eyes. Fascism's triumph depended on the complete discrediting of state authority, weak political elite who could no longer ensure that a system would operate in their interests, the fragmentation of party politics, and the freedom to build a movement that promised a radical alternative, an amusing incident essay.
In their book Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thoughtphilosophers George Lakoff and Mark Johnson wrote about fascism, an amusing incident essay, in the chapter about morality:. The Moral Order hierarchy is commonly extended in [Anglo-American] culture to include other relations of moral superiority: Western culture over non-Western culture; America over other countries; citizens over immigrants; Christians over non-Christians; straights over gays; the rich over the poor.
Incidentally, the Moral Order metaphor gives us a better understanding of what fascism is: Fascism legitimizes such a moral order and seeks to enforce it through the power of the state. John LukacsHungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues in The Hitler of History that there is no such thing as generic fascism, claiming that National Socialism and Italian Fascism were more different than similar and that, alongside communism, they were ultimately radical forms of populism.
Classical liberal economist and philosopher Ludwig von An amusing incident essayin his book Liberalismargued that fascism was a nationalist and militarist reaction against the rise of the communist An amusing incident essay Internationalin an amusing incident essay the nationalists and militarists came to oppose the principles of liberal democracy because "Liberalism, they thought, stayed their hand when they desired to strike a blow against the revolutionary parties while it was still possible to do so.
If liberalism had not hindered them, they would, so they believe, have bloodily nipped the revolutionary movements in the bud. Revolutionary ideas had been able to take root and flourish only because of the tolerance they had been accorded by their opponents, whose will power had been enfeebled by a regard for liberal principles that, as events subsequently proved, was overscrupulous. The fundamental idea of these movements—which, from the name of the most grandiose and tightly disciplined among them, the Italian, may, in general, be designated as Fascist—consists in the proposal to make use of the same unscrupulous methods in the struggle against the Third International as the latter employs against its opponents.
The Third International seeks to exterminate its adversaries and their ideas in the same way that the hygienist strives to exterminate a pestilential bacillus; it considers itself in no way bound by the terms of any compact that it may conclude with opponents, and it deems any crime, any lie, and any calumny permissible in carrying on its struggle.
The Fascists, at least in principle, profess the same intentions. Ernst Noltea German historian and Hegelian philosopher, an amusing incident essay, defined fascism in as a reaction against other political movements, especially Marxism : "Fascism is anti-Marxism which seeks to destroy the enemy by the evolvement of a radically opposed and yet related ideology and by the use of almost identical and yet typically modified methods, always, however, within the unyielding framework of national self-assertion and autonomy.
Kevin Passmore, a history lecturer at Cardiff Universitydefines fascism in his book Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. His definition is directly descended from the view put forth by Ernesto Laclauand is also informed by a desire to adjust for what he believes are shortcomings in Marxist, an amusing incident essay, Weberian and other analyses of fascism: [38].
Fascist nationalism is reactionary in that it entails implacable hostility to socialism and feminism, for they are seen as prioritizing class or gender rather than nation. This is why fascism is a movement of the extreme right.
Fascism is also a movement of the radical right because the defeat of socialism and feminism and the creation of the mobilized nation are held to depend upon the advent to power of a new elite acting in the name of the people, headed by a charismatic leader, and embodied in a mass, militarized party. Fascists are pushed towards conservatism by common hatred of socialism and feminism, an amusing incident essay, but are prepared to override conservative interests — family, property, religion, the universities, the civil service — where the interests of the nation are considered to require it.
Fascist radicalism also derives from a desire to assuage discontent by accepting specific demands of the labour and women's movements, so long as these demands accord with the national priority. All aspects of fascist policy are suffused with ultranationalism. Robert Paxtona professor emeritus at Columbia Universitydefines fascism in his book The Anatomy of Fascism as:. A form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, an amusing incident essay, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or an amusing incident essay restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.
In the same book, Paxton also argues that fascism's foundations lie in a set of "mobilizing passions" rather than an elaborated doctrine. He argues these passions can explain much of the behaviour of fascists: [39].
Historian of fascism Stanley G. Payne created a lengthy list of characteristics to identify fascism in [40] [41] in summary form, there are three main strands. First, Payne's "fascist negations" refers to such typical policies as anti-communism and anti-liberalism. Second, "fascist goals" include a nationalist dictatorship and an amusing incident essay expanded empire. Third, "fascist style", is seen in its emphasis on violence and authoritarianism, and its exultation of men above women, and young above old.
InNational Public Radio interviewed Jason Stanleya professor of philosophy at Yale Universityregarding his book How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them. Stanley defined fascism as "a cult of the leader who promises national restoration in the face of humiliation brought on by supposed communists, Marxists and minorities and immigrants who are supposedly posing a threat to the character and the history of a nation," and further observed that "The leader proposes that only he can solve it and all of his political opponents are enemies or traitors.
Zeev Sternhella historian and professor of political science, described Fascism as a reaction against modernity and a backlash against the changes it had caused to society, as a "rejection of the prevailing systems: liberalism and Marxism, positivism and democracy.
Marxists argue that fascism represents the last attempt of a ruling class specifically, the capitalist bourgeoisie to preserve its grip on power in the face of an imminent proletarian revolution. Fascist movements are not necessarily created by the ruling class, but they can only gain political power with the help of that class and with funding from big business, an amusing incident essay. Once in power, the fascists serve the interests of their benefactors. German playwright Bertolt Brecht describes fascism as: "a historic phase of capitalism" and " the nakedest, most shameless, most oppressive, and most treacherous form of capitalism" Georgi Dimitrova Bulgarian Communistwas a theorist of capitalism who expanded Lenin 's ideas and the work of An amusing incident essay Zetkin.
Delivering an official report to the 7th World Congress of the Communist Third International in AugustBulgarian Communist leader Georgi Dimitrov cited the definition of fascism formulated with the help of Clara Zetkin at the Third Plenum as "the open, terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionarymost chauvinisticand most imperialist elements of finance capital ".
It is not "the revolt of the petty bourgeoisie which has captured the machinery of the state," as the British Socialist Brailsford declares. No, an amusing incident essay, fascism is not a power standing above class, nor government an amusing incident essay the petty bourgeoisie or the lumpen-proletariat over finance capital. Fascism is the power of finance capital itself, an amusing incident essay. It is the organization of terrorist vengeance against the working class and the revolutionary section of the peasantry and intelligentsia.
In foreign policy, fascism is jingoism in its most brutal form, fomenting bestial hatred of other nations The development of fascism, and the fascist dictatorship itself, assume different forms in an amusing incident essay countries, according to historical, social and economic conditions and to the national peculiarities, and the international position of the given country.
An Essay about An Incident which I will never forget - Suvangi Creations.
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May 03, · The son of a half-Jewish Parisian grand-bourgeois family, Proust was known, before the publication of “Swann’s Way,” as a malicious, amusing, slightly absurd society boy, with a vaguely Aug 31, · The University of Utah on Instagram: “Since Arts Bash can The Morals of the Story | Essay. How Covid made us conscious. How lockdown monotony helps us to see our permanent existential struggle. By regina rini. Footnotes to Plato. We appraise the works and legacies of the great thinkers and philosophers See all in the series
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